Sand Plovers

Sand Plovers

The noisy cries of plovers ring out in open spaces the world over, from the killdeer repeating the call for which it was named, in North America, to the sad “peewit” of its Eurasian counterpart, the lapwing. In southern Africa, the Blacksmith plover breaks its silence with a loud, metallic “link, Klink” when disturbed.

The plovers are a large family of small to medium-sized plumpish shorebirds with rounded heads and large eyes. The “true plovers” (Charladies) are at the lower end of the size range, the “lapwings” (Vanillas) are in the middle, and the Pluvial species are at the top. Unlike other waders, plovers have “pigeon-like” bills, with the upper mandible: swollen toward the tip. They have medic. =to long legs and all arc quick runners strong fliers. The hind toe is small or absent, and most have three relatively short unwebbed front toes. Leg colors may be black, flesh-colored, or striking reds or yellows.

Despite the bold color patterns of species, the plumage is disruptive individuals blend easily into the environment.

As soon as they stand still. The backyard is molted twice, and the flight is at least once, a year during molts the timings of which can be complex. There is usually a complete post-breeding molt. Juvenile plovers molt a few weeks after fledging.

The 22 species of Vanillas are mostly found inland. They are widespread in all tropical and temperate areas except North America and are well represented in Africa. The breeding distribution ranges from the tideline to above the tree line – the Pun plover is found up to 4,500m (14,75oft) in the high Andes. The habitats include marshlands, lake edges, grasslands, steppes, and sometimes arid areas well away from water. Among lapwing species, but not other members of the family, a crest, wattles, and wing spurs are common.

The 3o species of true plovers or sand plovers (Charladies) are found along sandy or muddy shores and along rivers and inland on fields. The Ringed plover is widespread along the coasts of the Old World and breeds up to the arctic tundra; the main wintering grounds are along the eastern Mediterranean and African coasts. Most true plovers show a black chest band, black forehead, and black line from eye to bill.

The largest plovers are the three species of Pluvial is which breed at freshwater mar-she and grasslands in the upland and tundra regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The Eurasian golden plover acquires beautiful nuptial plumage in the spring which includes a coal-black “face,” breast, and belly to accompany the golden spots on the upper parts. It breeds in northern European and is replaced in Siberia and North America by the American golden plover, which is a true long-distance migrant, journeying from the arctic tundra across the Atlantic to Argentina and across the Pacific to Australia. One population flies directly from Alaska to Hawaii, a flight of some4, 5ookm (2, 8 omit). The Black-bellied plover (or Gray plover) breeds in the high Arctic of North America and Siberia, and although many individuals winter intemperate latitudes, some fly as far as Chilean Australia.

The wrybill from New Zealand has a bill that is bent laterally to the right at an angle of about 12°. This lateral asymmetry is unique among birds. So far there is no satisfactory explanation for this: there does not seem to be any benefit gained while feeding.

Most plovers do not wade in water in the same ways or to the same extent as other shorebirds. Typically they forage by walking in damp areas or at the water’s edge and some species are adapted to feeding in arid zones well away from water. Exceptions the White-tailed lapwing which, as well as feeding on land, wades in flooded areas taking prey from the surface or sometimes by submerging its head. Plovers have relatively large eyes which testify to the import-acne of sight during feeding. The range of food taken is broad and includes adult and larval insects, beetles, crustaceans, mol-lucks, worms, and sometimes berries. Typically they locate their prey by sight on the surface and quickly run forward a short distance to catch it. The Ringed plover, for example, largely feeds on crustaceans picked off mud or sand, especially at the edge of the tide. It quickly runs in and out of the areas vacated by receding waves.

The diets of migratory species at their wintering grounds probably differ widely
From their diets at the breeding grounds, only a few species have been investigated. In Britain, the Eurasian golden plover takes crane flies and other insects at its upland breeding grounds. On the lowland grasslands during the winter, it feeds largely on earthworms and insect larvae. At this time the golden plovers are frequently found unfairly large flocks often mixed with lapwings.

Black-headed gulls (see p3o) may also station themselves among these flocks, and as soon as they see a bird capture an earthworm they fly over and try to steal it. This feeding off others by theft, or kept parasitism, seems to be more successful against lapwings because they are slower to attack and ingest worms than are the golden plovers. The Eurasian lapwing is noted for its cold weather movements. Large flocks fly south and west ahead of cold weather fronts and quickly return to areas after a thaw.

Plovers may be paired on arrival at the breeding grounds or form pairs very shortly after arrival. They have some very aggressive and highly vocal displays. Aerial displays often contain spectacular twisting, plunging, diving, and hovering movements. On the ground, there may be displays involving quick running, wing-dropping, tail-fanning, and much bowing and curtseying, especially by the males during scrape-making. The importance of displays in this family is emphasized by the presence of a crest income species, such as the Eurasian lapwing, of prominent red and yellow facial wattles in species such as the Wattle plover of southern Africa and, in several species, well-developed wing spurs growing at the bend of the wing (carpal joint). These are particularly long in the masked plover of Australia.

The males create many scrapes on the open, bare, or slightly vegetated ground and the female appears to choose one in which today her eggs. The four eggs of the usual-sized clutch are commonly produced at intervals of 11-4 days. Among the few exceptions. Kittlitz’s plover and the wry bill lay only two eggs. The eggs and young are highly camouflaged and are well-defended by their parents. Nests may be flooded out if they are made near water and they are often subject to heavy predation. A completed clutch of large, pear-shaped eggs represents some 50-7o percent of the female’s body weight. Incubation, typically by both sexes, begins after the last egg is laid and lasts for some 18-22 days in the smaller species and 28-_38 days in the larger species.

Most species are noticeably gregarious. Migrating flocks can number thousands. Within a species, some populations, especially northern ones can be highly migratory while other southern ones can be virtually sedentary, egg redshank, and golden plovers. Prior to migration birds put on a lot of subcutaneous body fat. Breeding densities vary between species. Some nest in colonies of several hundred pairs. Others nest in small groups and defend fairly large territories.

The family contains one of the rarest members of the order Charadriiformes. And certainly the most restricted wader or shorebird in the world the New Zealand shore plover. Formerly found along New Zealand’s many coasts, it is now an endangered species limited to one small island of 22oha  in the Chatham Islands some 800km (5oomi) to the east. It was probably never very numerous but was seriously affected by commercial collectors at the turn of this century.

By 1937 the population was down to about 70 pairs and today there may be slightly fewer than oilbirds. They are sedentary, docile, and highly vulnerable to mammalian predators. The removal of sheep from the coastal areas of the island has allowed the vegetation to grow unchecked which has probably reduced the amount of appropriate habitat. In the early 1970s the introduction of adults and juveniles (some partially wing-clipped) onto a nearby predator-free island failed, because of the strong homing abilities of the birds. Further research into its ecological requirements may make it possible to devise a successful management plan for this plover, whose plight is so typical of many other birds found on remote islands.

Plovers’ eggs used to be collected in large numbers in Europe. Indeed, bird protection laws were often framed to allow the taking of lapwings’ eggs into the spring to satisfy the demand of epicures. Plovers were also extensively trapped after the breeding season and sold at many markets. Areas of grassland would be temporarily flooded to provide food, and the arriving birds, mostly lapwings, then are caught in large clap nets. Live decoys were used by the trappers to lure the birds to the precise area as efficiently as possible.

In the northern winter, the estuaries of Atlantic Europe hold over 2 million waders, mostly members of the sandpiper family. Nearly half the wintering birds are to be found in Britain, with concentrations of 100, 000 in larger estuaries, such as Wash in the east and Morecambe Bay in the west, which are of immense importance as feeding and roosting sites. Flocks, sometimes of tens of thousands, of dunlin and Red knot, together with smaller numbers of other species, are marveled at by birdwatchers. Aglow tides are widely dispersed over the sands and moods and are busy feeding. As the tide comes in and the feeding grounds become covered, the waders are con-cent rated into tighter and larger groups. They are forced into the high salt marshes or arable farmland to roost or rest during the high tide period. Before settling, the large flock wheel and turn in the sky like billowing plumes of smoke. The roosting flocks break up when the tide recedes and the bird’s then streamed back to the shore to start another feeding cycle.

The sandpiper family (Scolopacidae) comprises the largest family of shorebirds. Most species breed in the Northern Hemisphere, especially in the arctic and subarctic regions. The breeding range of many species encircles the Pole, and only a few sandpipers species are adapted to breed in tropical areas. Most are highly migratory and the most northerly breeders tend to undertake the longest journeys. Sandpipers breed in all types of wetlands and grasslands, ranging from coastal salt marshes to mountainous moorland. Temporary pools and areas of tundra freed from winter snows are favored by many species. Some nest on prairies and along rivers. Wintering areas are mainly sand and mudflats in estuaries, although some species use inland freshwaters, pastures, or rocky shores.

All sandpipers have relatively long wings and short tails. Their legs and neck are often long. All have three fairly long front toes and, except for the sanderling, a shorthand toe. There is a great variety of bill shapes and sizes. The bill is at least the length of the head in all species but is usually much longer. Plumage patterns are generally cryptic—mottled browns and grays above, with paler underparts sometimes with streaks and spots. The sexes look alike but in some species, there may become sexual differences in breeding plumage. All are quick runners and can wade in the water, and swim if necessary.

The main foods of most species during the breeding season are two-winged (dipterous) flies. Especially crane flies and midges. Sometimes plant foods are taken before the insects emerge. The main foods of the shore feeders in winter are mollusks such as telling and spire snails, crustaceans such as Cor-opium, and marine worms such as ragworms and lugworms. Snipes and woodcocks mostly take oligochaete worms from damp soils, the snipes from marshy ground, and the woodcocks often in damp woodland. Surface foods may be located by sight and picked up, but those beneath the surface are probed for and located by touch. The theBristle-thighed curlew is, somewhat unusually, fond of eating the eggs of other birds, particularly seabirds. The eyes are so placed in the head to give feeding waders a wide field of view; this adaptation is so complete in the woodcock that it has a 3 60° field of view.

Arctic-nesting species either arrive at the breeding grounds already paired or pair within 2-10 days, in order to take advantage of the short time available for breeding. Temperate-nesting species have a more pro-traced breeding season and individuals may spend several weeks at the breeding grounds before nesting. All species have elaborate display flights or song flights and there are ground displays involving wing-lifting prior to copulation. Sandpiper calls may be mono- to tri-syllabic and range from the noisy piping calls made by the redshank to twittering calls made by the true sand-pipers. Most species nest in tussocks on dry ground or amid ground vegetation, where they are well concealed. The Black-tailed godwit often fashions the vegetation into a cupola over its nest to give increased cover.

The Sub-Antarctic snipe nests in burrows made by other birds. Green sandpipers, Soli-tarry sandpipers, and occasionally Wood sandpipers lay their eggs in abandoned songbird nests in trees and bushes. Green sandpipers seek out well-wooded areas in which to breed. Most species are highly territorial. at least in the early part of the breed-in season, and nesting densities range from pair per sq km (2.6/sq mi) in the Long-billed curlew to 5—to pairs per ha (12-25/acre) in Sharp-toed sandpipers and Western sandpipers.

Eggs are laid at I-2 day intervals; incubation begins after the last egg is laid, and the foremost species lasts for 21-24 days. The markedly pear-shaped eggs are relatively large and neatly “fit together” in the nest bowl. The eggs are proportionally very large in the stints and a clutch represents some 90 percent of the female’s body weight. Typically, both males and females incubate, but the division of labor varies between species. However, in the ruff and Pectoral sand-piper, only the females incubate. The female of the Arctic-nesting sander ling lays two clutches, one of which she incubates herself, the other incubated by her mate.

The chicks hatch out within 24 hours of each other. They are well camouflaged and are able to fend for themselves. Once dry, they are typically tended by both parents and are led to suitable feeding grounds. However, only the female Pectoral and Curlew sandpipers tend their young. The dowitchers are most unusual, if not unique, in that only the females incubate the eggs and only the males tend to the young. Female dunlins may leave the males to tend the chicks with the assistance of non- or failed breeding birds. Male and female Com-moon snipes may split up the newly hatched brood between them. Woodcocks and redshanks are known to transport their young in flight, holding the chicks between their thighs. The fledging period varies from about 16 days in the smaller species to some 35-5o days in the curlews.

Male ruffs take part in complex communal displays or “tournaments” prior to mating. At this time they acquire elaborately colored “collar” feathers and also long ear tufts of various colors. This color range between individual males is perhaps the most extreme case of sexual polymorphism in plumage. The males gather at a display ground, or leek, which is usually an open, slightly raised spot. Some of the dark-colored ruffs are known as independent males and defend small patches of ground at the leek.

Other dark-colored males are kept at the edge of the leg and do not defend any ground. White-collared males do not defend the ground but, unlike marginal dark birds, are allowed to wander among the territories of the independent males. These “satellite “white males may serve to attract female, fourth independent males. There are short periods of frenzied activity at the leek, as the male spar, posture, leap, and flap, followed by periods of calm. Females (”reeves”) are allowed to walk through the leek. The successful males copulate with several females.

In a short space of time. No true pairs are formed and subsequently, the females undertake all the incubation of the eggs and tend to the chicks.

Displaying Common snipes are vociferous (notably, “chipping” noises) but are best known for their aerial “drumming” display. They dive at an angle of about 45° with the tail fanned out. The two outer tail feathers have highly asymmetrical vanes, the lead-in edges comprising very narrow strips. When the diving speed reaches about 65 km/h (4omph) the air passing over these feathers causes them to vibrate and give off a resonating bleat or drumming sound which can be heard some distance away. Most drumming is done by males. Although the females may drum early in the breeding season. Drumming continues in the rain, but it is curtailed by windy conditions.

Migrating birds may travel singly or in small groups (egg Common sandpipers), but most species are gregarious and travel in flocks of several hundred. On the wintering grounds some species, egg Red knot, and dunlin are highly gregarious and are founding mixed-species flocks numbering tens of thousands. Species that nest in the high Arctic, such as the Ruddy turnstone and sanderling, migrate south over most of the coasts of the world as far south as Australia, Chile, and southern Africa. Ruffs breeding in Siberia fly westward to northwest European then continue on a remarkable journey over the Mediterranean and Sahara deserts. Up to one million have been recorded in the Senegal delta in West Africa.

Several species have been extensively taken by hunters in both the Old and new worlds and some have never recovered their former numbers. Upland sandpipers, now scarce in their prairie breeding grounds, were extensively shot in North America in the 1880s and large numbers used tubes packed in barrels and shipped to the cities for sale as food.

(In part, this hunting press-urea was brought about by the failing supply of Passenger pigeons, which were being hunted to extinction.) Vast numbers of Eskimo curlews were shot in the 70s-80s, particularly when they made their northward journey from the Argentine pampas to the tundra breeding grounds. Today no wintering or breeding sites are known for this near-extinct species, but there have been a few recent sightings of individuals on passage and on former breed-in grounds.

The most striking physical feature of the avocets and stilts is the proportions of their bills and legs. The long, slender bills may either be straight or curve upward. Their legs, too, are long, and in the case of stilts extremely long. Avocets and stilts are thus adapted for feeding in deep water; the three species of stilts usually feed in slightly deeper water than the avocets.

The ibis bill is found only in mountainous river valleys between i,600 and 4,400m(5,250-14,450ft) above sea level in parts of Asia, while the Andean avocet is restricted to lakes and marshes above 3,600m(I I,800ft) in the Andes. The five other species are largely found in a variety of lowland wetlands which include freshwater mar-she, brackish and coastal salt marshes, and coastal and inland salt lakes. The stilt is the most widespread, with six subspecies found in continents. Some populations of the spread species migrate over con-.curable distances. Up to 30.00o Eurasian avocets have been counted wintering in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa.

Stilts have characteristic black bills and bright pink legs and feet. While avocets have black bills and blue-gray legs and feet. Theibisbill. However. Has a red bill and legs. The front toes are well webbed in avocets and the South Australian Banded stilt, but only partly so in the other species.
The variation in the amount of webbing on the feet is related to the importance of the swimming habit in each species. Avocets and stilts fly with quick wing beats and the legs trail behind the body.

All species take a wide range of aquatic invertebrates and small vertebrates in relatively deep water. Important prey includes mollusks, crustaceans including brine shrimps, insect larvae, annelid worms, tadpoles, and small fish. Stilts seize their prey from above or below the water surface with their long needle-like beaks. Avocets either seize their prey directly in the water or withal a scything motion of the bill. With this last method, the curved part of the submerged hill locates the prey by touch as it moves from side to side in the water or soft mud. Ihishills wade breast deep in the Mountain Rivers and can probe for prey under stones and boulders.

Avocets appear to prefer nesting on islands, where predation may be reduced.
(6.6ft) apart. Stilts usually nest in loose colonies of 20-4o pairs, American avocets in loose colonies of i5-2o pairs, and Eurasian avocets in colonies of 20-70 pairs. Ibisbillsdefend linear territories of about Ian (o.6mi) along rivers. All species seem highly territorial, have fairly aggressive displays, and defend nesting territories and noisily mob intruders and potential predators. The young leave the nest within 24 hours of hatching and the brood-rearing areas, which may change during the one-month fledging period, may be vigorously defended by the adults.

The habitats of most species, although sometimes specialized, do not appear to be universally threatened. In 1969 there were about Io, 00o pairs of Eurasian avocets in northwest Europe. Breeding numbers had increased in a few countries, including Britain, Denmark, and Sweden, but had decreased in a few countries in southeast Europe, probably due to changes in land use. The Hawaiian race of the stilt may be endangered: in 1944 there were only about 200, but these had increased to 1,500 in1969 as a result of protection measures.

 The three species have lobed, partially webbed toes, and laterally flattened tarsi (lower legs) that reduce underwater drag and plumage like that of a duck on their underparts. This provides a layer of trapped air on which they float—as lightly as corks. Indeed, phalaropes are so buoyant that they cannot remain waterborne in strong gales. Outside the breeding season, vagrant individuals may appear almost anywhere in the world, as they get blown in all species before strong gales. In fact, in Newfoundland, they are known as “gale birds.”

Wilson’s phalarope breeds inland in the southern parts of North America. The breed-in distribution of the other two species are circumpolar, the Gray (or Red) phalarope in the high arctic tundra and boreal zone, and the Red-necked phalarope in the subarctic tundra. All three species select shallow waters, ponds, and lakes near marshy and grassy areas. The Red-necked phalarope favors permanent bodies of freshwater, Wilson’s phalarope fresh to salt semi-permanent waters, and the Gray (Red) phalarope temporary ponds of the tundra. Wilson’s phalarope winters in inland and coastal waters in South America, while the other two species winter in the open oceans.

Phalaropes have relatively long necks and beautiful breeding (nuptial) plumages, acquired in late spring but quickly lost. All have some white parts on the head and red and black markings. The amount of red is invariable. The “Gray phalarope” is actually the reddest: the description “gray” refers to the tithe predominant color of the upper parts of the winter plumage; in the United States, “Red” phalarope is the more usual name for this species. The female birds are markedly different from the males, both larger (1 percent in the Red-necked, 20 percent in the Gray or Red, and 35 percent in Wilson’s phalarope) and gaudier in their breeding Plumage. This reflects the initiating role of the female in many aspects of breeding behavior.

The bill is straight and needle-like in Red-necked and Wilson’s phalaropes, thicker in the Gray (Red) species. All are active feeders, scarcely stopping as they peck at their prey. All can feed while spinning swimming insight circles. This may be a technique for stirring up invertebrate foods, making them more obvious and causing them to raise tithe water surface, where they can be picked off. All phalaropes forage in shallow water, along the shoreline, or among wracks of seaweed. The fine bills and large eyes help to catch the prey, which is chiefly insects (all life stages), especially midges and gnats.

The range of prey taken is large and includes water snails, water beetles, caddis flies, and large plankton. Phalaropes are highly opportunistic feeders at their breed-in grounds Red-necked phalaropes will quickly change from swimming and pecking at newly emerged midges to walking along the shoreline and pecking at emerging cad-dies flies as they dry off on partly submerged stones. The oceanic plankton taken includes tiny fishes, crustaceans, and small jellyfish. Gray (Red) phalaropes sometimes pick parasites off the backs of whales.

Adult females are known to live at least five years, and probably breed first when they are one year old. The breeding season incubation is done by both sexes. Most birds first breed when they are two years old. The Banded stilt is highly colonial: colonies of up to 27,000 pairs have been recorded, with the nests only about 2m (6.6ft) apart.

Stilts usually nest in loose colonies of 20-4o pairs, American avocets in loose colonies of i5-2o pairs, and Eurasian avocets in colonies of 20-70 pairs. Ibisbillsdefend linear territories of about Ian (o.6mi) along rivers. All species seem highly territorial, have fairly aggressive displays, and defend nesting territories and noisily mob intruders and potential predators. The young leave the nest within 24 hours of hatching and the brood-rearing areas, which may change during the one-month fledging period, may be vigorously defended by the adults.

The habitats of most species, although sometimes specialized, do not appear to be universally threatened. In 1969 there were about Io, 00o pairs of Eurasian avocets in northwest Europe. Breeding numbers had increased in a few countries, including Britain, Denmark, and Sweden, but had decreased in a few countries in southeast Europe, probably due to changes in land use. The Hawaiian race of the stilt may be endangered: in 1944 there were only about 200, but these had increased to 1,500 in1969 as a result of protection measures.

The three species have lobed, partially webbed toes, laterally flattened tarsi (lower legs) that reduce underwater drag, and plumage like that of a duck on their underparts. This provides a layer of trapped air on which they float—as lightly as corks. Indeed, phalaropes are so buoyant that they cannot remain waterborne in strong gales. Outside the breeding season, vagrant individuals may appear almost anywhere in the world, as they get blown before strong gales. In fact, in Newfoundland, they are known as “gale birds.”

Wilson’s phalarope breeds inland in the southern parts of North America. The breed-in distribution of the other two species are circumpolar, the Gray (or Red) phalarope in the high arctic tundra and boreal zone, and the Red-necked phalarope in the subarctic tundra. All three species select shallow waters, ponds, and lakes near marshy and grassy areas. The Red-necked phalarope favors permanent bodies of freshwater, Wilson’s phalarope fresh to salt semi-permanent waters, and the Gray (Red) phalarope temporary ponds of the tundra. Wilson’s phalarope winters in inland and coastal waters in South America, while the other two species winter in the open oceans.

Phalaropes have relatively long necks and beautiful breeding (nuptial) plumages, acquired in late spring but quickly lost. All have some white parts on the head and red and black markings. The amount of red is invariable. The “Gray phalarope” is actually the reddest: the description “gray” refers to the tithe predominant color of the upper parts of the winter plumage; in the United States, “Red” phalarope is the more usual name for this species. The female birds are markedly different from the males, both larger (1 percent in the Red-necked, 20 percent in the Gray or Red, and 35 percent in Wilson’s phalarope) and gaudier in their breeding
Plumage. This reflects the initiating role of the female in many aspects of breeding behavior.

The bill is straight and needle-like in Red-necked and Wilson’s phalaropes, thicker in the Gray (Red) species. All are active feeders, scarcely stopping as they peck at their prey. All can feed while spinning swimming insight circles. This may be a technique for stirring up invertebrate foods, making them more obvious and causing them to raise tithe water surface, where they can be picked off. All phalaropes forage in shallow water, along the shoreline, or among wracks of seaweed.

The fine bills and large eyes help to catch the prey, which is chiefly insects (all life stages), especially midges and gnats. The range of prey taken is large and includes water snails, water beetles, caddis flies, and large plankton. Phalaropes are highly opportunistic feeders at their breed-in grounds– – Red-necked phalaropes will quickly change from swimming and pecking at newly emerged midges to walking along the shoreline and pecking at emerging cad-dies flies as they dry off on partly submerged stones. The oceanic plankton taken includes tiny fishes, crustaceans, and small jellyfish. Gray (Red) phalaropes sometimes pick parasites off the backs of whales.

Adult females are known to live at least five years, and probably breed first when they are one year old. The breeding season is very short. Generally, females arrive at the breeding grounds in June, ahead of the males, but the sexes sometimes arrive together, apparently paired. Otherwise, pairing takes place in a few days. The females may participate in nest-site searches and both sexes make nest scrapes. It appears that the female selects the chosen site and the male prepares the final nest, hidden in dry grass or a sedge tussock near to water. Some roles are sex-reversed. The female takes the initiative in courtship and with dies-play flights. She pays the male constant attention until a pair bond is formed. Incubation of the eggs and care of the young is exclusively carried out by the male.

The two birds are seldom far apart for the duration (often brief) of the pair bond and keep in touch with repeated short calls. Nesting can be solitary or loosely colonial. The two arctic-nesting species often nest in or near colonies of Arctic terns, which may help in providing an increase in vigilance against predators. Gray (Red) phalaropes copulate on land, Red-necked while swim-Ming, and Wilson’s phalaropes while either standing in water or swimming.

Normally one egg is laid each day for four days. The male begins to incubate sometime between the production of the first and third eggs. After the initial egg lying, female Red-necked and Gray (Red) phalaropes may mate with other males if there are enough males around. A female will start to lay a clutch of eggs for a new male some 7-10 days after completing her first. She will remain at the breeding ground and provide second clutches for the original or second male should the first ones be destroyed.

The incubating male rarely leaves thinnest. The small eggs, the brief courtships, and the polyandrous habit (one female mating with several males) all seem to be adaptations for the short breeding season. The chicks of one clutch hatch more or less at the same time. The hatchlings are well developed and leave the nest when some 3-6 hours old. They are cared for by the male-only. He broods them frequently in the day and night during the first few days, and also at times of bad weather. They swim and feed like ducklings under his supervision before he abandons them at 11-14 days.

All three phalaropes are relatively calm-moon throughout most of their breeding range which, in the case of the Red-necked and Gray (Red) phalaropes, is usually well beyond any damaging human activities. However, in the case of Wilson’s phalarope, some of its prairie marsh habitats are being drained.

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